Resonance
Resonance structures are sets of Lewis structures that describe the delocalization of electrons in a polyatomic ion or a molecule. In many cases, a single Lewis structure fails to explain the bonding in a molecule/polyatomic ion due to the presence of partial charges and fractional bonds in it. In such cases, resonance structures are used to describe chemical bonding.
Hybridization: How to calculate
This video dedicated to free education to all, Atomic orbital hybridisation (or hybridization) is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory. For example, in a carbon atom which forms four single bonds the valence-shell s orbital combines with three valence-shell p orbitals to form four equivalent sp3 mixtures which are arranged in a tetrahedral arrangement around the carbon to bond to four different atoms. Hybrid orbitals are useful in the explanation of molecular geometry and atomic bonding properties and are symmetrically disposed in space. Usually hybrid orbitals are formed by mixing atomic orbitals of comparable energies.
Hybridization of Atomic orbitals
Hybridization is defined as the concept of mixing two atomic orbitals with the same energy levels to give a degenerated new type of orbitals. This intermixing is based on quantum mechanics. The atomic orbitals of the same energy level can only take part in hybridization and both full filled and half-filled orbitals can also take part in this process, provided they have equal energy.
Molecular Orbital Theory (M.O.T.-2)
The region of an electron is likely to be found in a molecule. A MO is defined as the combination of atomic orbitals. This is to used for calculation of chemical and physical properties such as the probability of finding an electron in any specific region. It is the mathematical function describes the wave-like behavior of an electron in a molecule. The molecular orbitals are obtained by combining the atomic orbitals on the atoms in the molecule. For example consider the H2 molecule. One of the molecular orbitals in this molecule is constructed by adding the mathematical functions for the two 1s atomic orbitals that come together to form this molecule, it is also call additive combination or bonding. Another orbital is formed by subtracting one of these functions from the other called the subtractive combination or antibonding, as showing in video
Molecular Orbital Theory (M.O.T.-1)
The Molecular Orbital Theory (often abbreviated to MOT) is a theory on chemical bonding developed at the beginning of the twentieth century by F. Hund and R. S. Mulliken to describe the structure and properties of different molecules. The valence-bond theory failed to adequately explain how certain molecules contain two or more equivalent bonds whose bond orders lie between that of a single bond and that of a double bond, such as the bonds in resonance-stabilized molecules. This is where the molecular orbital theory proved to be more powerful than the valence-bond theory (since the orbitals described by the MOT reflect the geometries of the molecules to which it is applied).
Atom and Atomic orbitals
Atomic orbitals are mathematical functions that provide insight into the wave nature of electrons (or pairs of electrons) that exist around the nuclei of atoms. In the fields of quantum mechanics and atomic theory, these mathematical functions are often employed in order to determine the probability of finding an electron (belonging to an atom) in a specific region around the nucleus of the atom.
Respiratory and circulatory system
Respiratory system is not complete without circulatory system, respiratory and circulatory system are connected with each other. Our body have two purification house, one is our kidney and other is lungs. Kidney purifying the blood from liquid wastes and Lungs purifying blood from gaseous waste (Carbon dioxide).
Reaction intermediate: Free Radicals
In chemistry, a radical is an atom, molecule, or ion that has an unpaired valence electron.With some exceptions, these unpaired electrons make radicals highly chemically reactive. Many radicals spontaneously dimerize. Most organic radicals have short lifetimes.
Reaction intermediate: Carbocation
A carbocation is a molecule in which a carbon atom has a positive charge and three bonds. We can basically say that they are carbon cations. Formerly, it was known as carbonium ion. Carbocation today is defined as any even-electron cation that possesses a significant positive charge on the carbon atom. Talking about some general characteristics, the carbon cations are very reactive and unstable due to an incomplete octet. In simple words, carbocations do not have eight electrons, therefore they do not satisfy the octet rule.
Rearrangement of Carbocations
Carbocation rearrangements can be defined “as the movement of the carbocation from an unstable state to a more stable state by making use of different structural reorganizational shifts within the molecule”. Alkyl carbocation is a carbocation comprising an alkyl group. They are the most common carbocation. Carbocation Rearrangement occurs whenever the alcohols are converted into several carbocations and this phenomenon is termed as carbocation rearrangement. In simple carbocation comprises +ve charge in a molecule that is connected to 3 more groups and holds a sextet. Carbocation rearrangement can be carried out to a reaction that does not involve alcohol. There are 3 types of carbocation rearrangements namely Alkyl and Hybrid Shift and phenyl shift.
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