Inductive effect
In chemistry, the inductive effect is an effect regarding the transmission of unequal sharing of the bonding electron through a chain of atoms in a molecule, leading to a permanent dipole in a bond. It is present in a σ (sigma) bond, but not present in a π (pi) bond.
Fajan’s’ rule
Fajan’s’ rule predicts whether a chemical bond will be covalent or ionic. Few ionic bonds have partial covalent characteristics which were first discussed by Kazimierz Fajan’s in 1923. In the time with the help of X-ray crystallography, he was able to predict ionic or covalent bonding with the attributes like ionic and atomic radius
Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonding refers to the formation of Hydrogen bonds, which are a special class of attractive intermolecular forces that arise due to the dipole-dipole interaction between a hydrogen atom that is bonded to a highly electronegative atom and another highly electronegative atom while lies in the vicinity of the hydrogen atom. For example, in water molecules (H2O), hydrogen is covalently bonded to the more electronegative oxygen atom. Therefore, hydrogen bonding arises in water molecules due to the dipole-dipole interactions between the hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the oxygen atom of another H2O molecule.
Chemical Bonding : Types of Bond
Chemical Bonding refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more atoms, molecules, or ions to give rise to a chemical compound. These chemical bonds are what keep the atoms together in the resulting compound.
VSEPR Theory
VSEPR Theory is used to predict the shape of the molecules from the electron pairs that surround the central atoms of the molecule. The theory was first presented by Sidgwick and Powell in 1940. VSEPR theory is based on the assumption that the molecule will take a shape such that electronic repulsion in the valence shell of that atom is minimized.
Stability of resonating structure
stability of resonating structure, means which resonating structure is more stable and which is less and what are the orders of stability.
Mesomeric effect:
In 1938, scientist Ingold developed the concepts of mesomeric effect, mesomerism and mesomer. Interestingly, mesomerism is synonymous to resonance which was introduced by Scientist Pauling. Up until 1950, the word mesomerism was widely used in French and German language. However, in the English language, the term “resonance” has become very popular and is widely used today. On the whole, they refer to the same concept. The polarity developed between atoms of a conjugated system by the electron transfer or pi–bond electron transfer is known as the Mesomeric effect. In simple terms, we can describe mesomeric effect occurs when π electrons move away from or towards a substituent group in a conjugated orbital system.
Mesomeric effect: Applications.
Application of mesomeric effect predicts the stability of derivatives of Benzene.
Hyperconjugation :
Hyperconjugation effect is a permanent effect in which localization of σ electrons of C-H bond of an alkyl group directly attached to an atom of the unsaturated system or to an atom with an unshared p orbital takes place. We also observe that the hyperconjugation stabilizes the carbocation as it helps in the dispersal of positive charges. Thus, we can say that the greater the number of alkyl groups attached to a positively charged carbon atom, the greater is the hyperconjugation interaction and stabilization of the carbonation.
Ortho effect :
Ortho effect refers mainly to the set of steric effects and some bonding interactions along with polar effects caused by the various substituents which are in a given molecule altering its chemical properties and physical properties. In a general sense the ortho effect is associated with substituted benzene compounds.
Carbene :
In chemistry, a carbene is a molecule containing a neutral carbon atom with a valence of two and two unshared valence electrons. The general formula is R-(C:)-R’ or R=C: where the R represent substituents or hydrogen atoms.
Comparative Study of Electronic effects:
This is comparative study of all major electronic effects. These major electronic effects are Inductive effect, Hyperconjugation effect and Resonance or Mesomeric effect.
Reaction Intermediate: Carboanion or Carbanion
Carboanion also called Carbanion. A carbanion can be defined as a negatively charged ion in which a carbon atom exhibits trivalence (implying it forms a total of three bonds) and holds a formal negative charge whose magnitude is at least -1. When pi delocalization does not occur in the organic molecule (as it does in the case of aromatic compounds), carbanions typically assume a bent, linear, or a trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry. It is important to note that all carbanions are conjugate bases of some carbon acids.
Aromatic/Non-Aromatic/Anti-Aromatic
This differs from aromaticity only in the fourth criterion: aromatic molecules have 4n +2 π-electrons in the conjugated π system and therefore follow Hückel’s rule. Non-aromatic molecules are either noncyclic, nonplanar, or do not have a complete conjugated π system within the ring. An antiaromatic compound may demonstrate its antiaromaticity both kinetically and thermodynamically. As will be discussed later, antiaromatic compounds experience exceptionally high chemical reactivity (being highly reactive is not “indicative” of an antiaromatic compound, it merely suggests that the compound could be antiaromatic). An antiaromatic compound may also be recognized thermodynamically by measuring the energy of the cyclic conjugated π electron system. In an antiaromatic compound, the amount of conjugation energy in the molecule will be significantly higher than in an appropriate reference compound
Reaction Mechanism: An Introduction
In chemistry, a reaction mechanism is the step by step sequence of elementry reaction by which overall chemical change occurs. A reaction mechanism must also account for the order in which molecules react.
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